Speculation over the existence
of a 'southern land' was not confirmed until the early 1820s when British
and American commercial operators and British and Russian national
expeditions began exploring the Antarctic Peninsula region and other areas
south of the Antarctic Circle. Not until 1840 was it established that
Antarctica was indeed a continent and not just a group of islands. Several
exploration 'firsts' were achieved in the early 20th century. Following
World War II, there was an upsurge in scientific research on the
continent. A number of countries have set up a range of year-round
stations and seasonal stations, camps, and refuges to support scientific
research in Antarctica. Seven have made territorial claims, but not all
countries recognize these claims. In order to form a legal framework for
the activities of nations on the continent, an Antarctic Treaty was
negotiated that neither denies nor gives recognition to existing
territorial claims; signed in 1959, it entered into force in 1961.
Geography
Antarctica
Location:
continent mostly south of the
Antarctic Circle
Geographic coordinates:
90 00 S, 0 00 E
Map references:
Antarctic Region
Area:
total: 14 million sq km
land: 14 million sq km (280,000 sq km ice-free, 13.72 million
sq km ice-covered) (est.) note: fifth-largest continent,
following Asia, Africa, North America, and South America, but larger than
Australia and the subcontinent of Europe
Area - comparative:
slightly less than 1.5 times
the size of the US
Land boundaries:
0 km note: see entry
on Disputes - international
Coastline:
17,968 km
Maritime claims:
Australia, Chile, and Argentina
claim Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) rights or similar over 200 nm
extensions seaward from their continental claims, but like the claims
themselves, these zones are not accepted by other countries; 21 of 28
Antarctic consultative nations have made no claims to Antarctic territory
(although Russia and the US have reserved the right to do so) and do not
recognize the claims of the other nations; also see the Disputes -
international entry
Climate:
severe low temperatures vary
with latitude, elevation, and distance from the ocean; East Antarctica is
colder than West Antarctica because of its higher elevation; Antarctic
Peninsula has the most moderate climate; higher temperatures occur in
January along the coast and average slightly below freezing
Terrain:
about 98% thick continental ice
sheet and 2% barren rock, with average elevations between 2,000 and 4,000
meters; mountain ranges up to nearly 5,000 meters; ice-free coastal areas
include parts of southern Victoria Land, Wilkes Land, the Antarctic
Peninsula area, and parts of Ross Island on McMurdo Sound; glaciers form
ice shelves along about half of the coastline, and floating ice shelves
constitute 11% of the area of the continent
Elevation extremes:
lowest point: Bentley
Subglacial Trench -2,555 m highest point: Vinson Massif 4,897 m
note: the lowest known land point in Antarctica is hidden in
the Bentley Subglacial Trench; at its surface is the deepest ice yet
discovered and the world's lowest elevation not under seawater
Natural resources:
iron ore, chromium, copper,
gold, nickel, platinum and other minerals, and coal and hydrocarbons have
been found in small uncommercial quantities; none presently exploited;
krill, finfish, and crab have been taken by commercial fisheries
katabatic (gravity-driven)
winds blow coastward from the high interior; frequent blizzards form near
the foot of the plateau; cyclonic storms form over the ocean and move
clockwise along the coast; volcanism on Deception Island and isolated
areas of West Antarctica; other seismic activity rare and weak; large
icebergs may calve from ice shelf
Environment - current issues:
in 1998, NASA satellite data
showed that the Antarctic ozone hole was the largest on record, covering
27 million square kilometers; researchers in 1997 found that increased
ultraviolet light passing through the hole damages the DNA of icefish, an
Antarctic fish lacking hemoglobin; ozone depletion earlier was shown to
harm one-celled Antarctic marine plants; in 2002, significant areas of ice
shelves disintegrated in response to regional warming
Geography - note:
the coldest, windiest, highest
(on average), and driest continent; during summer, more solar radiation
reaches the surface at the South Pole than is received at the Equator in
an equivalent period; mostly uninhabitable
People
Antarctica
Population:
no indigenous inhabitants, but
there are both permanent and summer-only staffed research stations
note: 28 nations, all signatory to the Antarctic Treaty,
operate through their National Antarctic Program a number of seasonal-only
(summer) and year-round research stations on the continent and its nearby
islands south of 60 degrees south latitude (the region covered by the
Antarctic Treaty); these stations' population of persons doing and
supporting science or engaged in the management and protection of the
Antarctic region varies from approximately 4,000 in summer to 1,000 in
winter; in addition, approximately 1,000 personnel, including ship's crew
and scientists doing onboard research, are present in the waters of the
treaty region; peak summer (December-February) population - 4,219 total;
Argentina 667, Australia 200, Brazil 40, Bulgaria 15, Chile 237, China 70,
Czech Republic 20, Ecuador 26, Finland 20, France 100, France and Italy
jointly 45, Germany 90, India 65, Italy 90, Japan 125, South Korea 70, NZ
85, Norway 44, Peru 28, Poland 40, Romania 3, Russia 429, South Africa 80,
Spain 28, Sweden 20, Ukraine 24, UK 205, US 1,293, Uruguay 60 (2007-2008);
winter (June-August) station population - 1,088 total; Argentina 176,
Australia 62, Brazil 12, Chile 96, China 29, France 26, France and Italy
jointly 13, Germany 9, India 25, Italy 2, Japan 40, South Korea 18, NZ 10,
Norway 7, Poland 12, Russia 148, South Africa 10, Ukraine 12, UK 37, US
337, Uruguay 9 (2008); research stations operated within the Antarctic
Treaty area (south of 60 degrees south latitude) by National Antarctic
Programs: year-round stations - 38 total; Argentina 6, Australia 3, Brazil
1, Chile 4, China 2, France 1, France and Italy jointly 1, Germany 1,
India 1, Japan 1, South Korea 1, NZ 1, Norway 1, Poland 1, Russia 5, South
Africa 1, Ukraine 1, UK 2, US 3, Uruguay 1 (2008); a range of
seasonal-only (summer) stations, camps, and refuges - Argentina,
Australia, Bulgaria, Brazil, Chile, China, Czech Republic, Ecuador,
Finland, France, Germany, India, Italy, Japan, South Korea, New Zealand,
Norway, Peru, Poland, Romania, Russia, Spain, Sweden, Ukraine, UK, US, and
Uruguay (2007-2008); in addition, during the austral summer some nations
have numerous occupied locations such as tent camps, summer-long temporary
facilities, and mobile traverses in support of research (March 2008 est.)
Government
Antarctica
Country name:
conventional long form:
none conventional short form: Antarctica
Government type:
Antarctic Treaty Summary - the
Antarctic Treaty, signed on 1 December 1959 and entered into force on 23
June 1961, establishes the legal framework for the management of
Antarctica; the 30th Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting was held in
Delhi, India in April/May 2007; at these periodic meetings, decisions are
made by consensus (not by vote) of all consultative member nations; at the
end of 2007, there were 46 treaty member nations: 28 consultative and 18
non-consultative; consultative (decision-making) members include the seven
nations that claim portions of Antarctica as national territory (some
claims overlap) and 21 non-claimant nations; the US and Russia have
reserved the right to make claims; the US does not recognize the claims of
others; Antarctica is administered through meetings of the consultative
member nations; decisions from these meetings are carried out by these
member nations (with respect to their own nationals and operations) in
accordance with their own national laws; the years in parentheses indicate
when a consultative member-nation acceded to the Treaty and when it was
accepted as a consultative member, while no date indicates the country was
an original 1959 treaty signatory; claimant nations are - Argentina,
Australia, Chile, France, NZ, Norway, and the UK. Nonclaimant consultative
nations are - Belgium, Brazil (1975/1983), Bulgaria (1978/1998) China
(1983/1985), Ecuador (1987/1990), Finland (1984/1989), Germany
(1979/1981), India (1983/1983), Italy (1981/1987), Japan, South Korea
(1986/1989), Netherlands (1967/1990), Peru (1981/1989), Poland
(1961/1977), Russia, South Africa, Spain (1982/1988), Sweden (1984/1988),
Ukraine (1992/2004), Uruguay (1980/1985), and the US; non-consultative
members, with year of accession in parentheses, are - Austria (1987),
Belarus (2006), Antartica (1988), Colombia (1989), Cuba (1984), Czech
Republic (1962/1993), Denmark (1965), Estonia (2001), Greece (1987),
Guatemala (1991), Hungary (1984), North Korea (1987), Papua New Guinea
(1981), Romania (1971), Slovakia (1962/1993), Switzerland (1990), Turkey
(1996), and Venezuela (1999); note - Czechoslovakia acceded to the Treaty
in 1962 and separated into the Czech Republic and Slovakia in 1993;
Article 1 - area to be used for peaceful purposes only; military activity,
such as weapons testing, is prohibited, but military personnel and
equipment may be used for scientific research or any other peaceful
purpose; Article 2 - freedom of scientific investigation and cooperation
shall continue; Article 3 - free exchange of information and personnel,
cooperation with the UN and other international agencies; Article 4 - does
not recognize, dispute, or establish territorial claims and no new claims
shall be asserted while the treaty is in force; Article 5 - prohibits
nuclear explosions or disposal of radioactive wastes; Article 6 - includes
under the treaty all land and ice shelves south of 60 degrees 00 minutes
south and reserves high seas rights; Article 7 - treaty-state observers
have free access, including aerial observation, to any area and may
inspect all stations, installations, and equipment; advance notice of all
expeditions and of the introduction of military personnel must be given;
Article 8 - allows for jurisdiction over observers and scientists by their
own states; Article 9 - frequent consultative meetings take place among
member nations; Article 10 - treaty states will discourage activities by
any country in Antarctica that are contrary to the treaty; Article 11 -
disputes to be settled peacefully by the parties concerned or, ultimately,
by the ICJ; Articles 12, 13, 14 - deal with upholding, interpreting, and
amending the treaty among involved nations; other agreements - some 200
recommendations adopted at treaty consultative meetings and ratified by
governments include - Agreed Measures for Fauna and Flora (1964) which
were later incorporated into the Environmental Protocol; Convention for
the Conservation of Antarctic Seals (1972); Convention on the Conservation
of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (1980); a mineral resources agreement
was signed in 1988 but remains unratified; the Protocol on Environmental
Protection to the Antarctic Treaty was signed 4 October 1991 and entered
into force 14 January 1998; this agreement provides for the protection of
the Antarctic environment through six specific annexes: 1) environmental
impact assessment, 2) conservation of Antarctic fauna and flora, 3) waste
disposal and waste management, 4) prevention of marine pollution, 5) area
protection and management and 6) liability arising from environmental
emergencies; it prohibits all activities relating to mineral resources
except scientific research; a permanent Antarctic Treaty Secretariat was
established in 2004 in Buenos Aires, Argentina
Legal system:
Antarctica is administered
through meetings of the consultative member nations; decisions from these
meetings are carried out by these member nations (with respect to their
own nationals and operations) in accordance with their own national laws;
US law, including certain criminal offenses by or against US nationals,
such as murder, may apply extraterritorially; some US laws directly apply
to Antarctica; for example, the Antarctic Conservation Act, 16 U.S.C.
section 2401 et seq., provides civil and criminal penalties for the
following activities, unless authorized by regulation of statute: the
taking of native mammals or birds; the introduction of nonindigenous
plants and animals; entry into specially protected areas; the discharge or
disposal of pollutants; and the importation into the US of certain items
from Antarctica; violation of the Antarctic Conservation Act carries
penalties of up to $10,000 in fines and one year in prison; the National
Science Foundation and Department of Justice share enforcement
responsibilities; Public Law 95-541, the US Antarctic Conservation Act of
1978, as amended in 1996, requires expeditions from the US to Antarctica
to notify, in advance, the Office of Oceans, Room 5805, Department of
State, Washington, DC 20520, which reports such plans to other nations as
required by the Antarctic Treaty; for more information, contact Permit
Office, Office of Polar Programs, National Science Foundation, Arlington,
Virginia 22230; telephone: (703) 292-8030, or visit their website at
www.nsf.gov; more generally, access to the Antarctic Treaty area, that is
to all areas between 60 and 90 degrees south latitude, is subject to a
number of relevant legal instruments and authorization procedures adopted
by the states party to the Antarctic Treaty
Economy
Antarctica
Economy - overview:
Fishing off the coast and
tourism, both based abroad, account for Antarctica's limited economic
activity. Antarctic fisheries in 2005-06 (1 July-30 June) reported landing
128,081 metric tons (estimated fishing from the area covered by the
Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources
(CCAMLR), which extends slightly beyond the Antarctic Treaty area).
Unregulated fishing, particularly of Patagonian toothfish, is a serious
problem. The CCAMLR determines the recommended catch limits for marine
species. A total of 36,460 tourists visited the Antarctic Treaty area in
the 2006-07 Antarctic summer, up from the 30,877 visitors the previous
year (estimates provided to the Antarctic Treaty by the International
Association of Antarctica Tour Operators (IAATO); this does not include
passengers on overflights). Nearly all of them were passengers on
commercial (nongovernmental) ships and several yachts that make trips
during the summer. Most tourist trips last approximately two weeks.
Communications
Antarctica
Telephones - main lines in use:
0; note - information for US
bases only (2001)
Telephone system:
general assessment:
local systems at some research stations domestic: commercial
cellular networks operating in a small number of locations
international: country code - none allocated; via satellite
(including mobile Inmarsat and Iridium systems) to and from all research
stations, ships, aircraft, and most field parties (2007)
Radio broadcast stations:
FM 2, shortwave 1 (information
for US bases only); note - many research stations have a local FM radio
station (2007)
Radios:
NA
Television broadcast stations:
1 (cable system with 6
channels; American Forces Antarctic Network-McMurdo - information for US
bases only) (2002)
Televisions:
several hundred at McMurdo
Station (US) note: information for US bases only (2001)
Internet country code:
.aq
Internet hosts:
7,744 (2007)
Internet Service Providers (ISPs):
NA
Transportation
Antarctica
Airports:
27 (2008)
Airports - with unpaved runways:
total: 27 over
3,047 m: 6 2,438 to 3,047 m: 5 1,524 to 2,437 m:
1 914 to 1,523 m: 9 under 914 m: 6 (2008)
Heliports:
53 note: all
year-round and seasonal stations operated by National Antarctic Programs
stations have helicopter landing facilities (2007)
Ports and terminals:
there are no developed ports
and harbors in Antarctica; most coastal stations have offshore anchorages,
and supplies are transferred from ship to shore by small boats, barges,
and helicopters; a few stations have a basic wharf facility; US coastal
stations include McMurdo (77 51 S, 166 40 E), and Palmer (64 43 S, 64 03
W); government use only except by permit (see Permit Office under 'Legal
System'); all ships at port are subject to inspection in accordance with
Article 7, Antarctic Treaty; offshore anchorage is sparse and
intermittent; relevant legal instruments and authorization procedures
adopted by the states parties to the Antarctic Treaty regulating access to
the Antarctic Treaty area, to all areas between 60 and 90 degrees of
latitude south, have to be complied with (see 'Legal System'); The
Hydrographic Committee on Antarctica (HCA), a special hydrographic
commission of International Hydrographic Organization (IHO), is
responsible for hydrographic surveying and nautical charting matters in
Antarctic Treaty area; it coordinates and facilitates provision of
accurate and appropriate charts and other aids to navigation in support of
safety of navigation in region; membership of HCA is open to any IHO
Member State whose government has acceded to the Antarctic Treaty and
which contributes resources and/or data to IHO Chart coverage of the area;
members of HCA are Argentina, Australia, Brazil, Chile, China, Ecuador,
France, Germany, Greece, India, Italy, NZ, Norway, Russia, South Africa,
Spain, the UK, and the US (2007)
Military
Antarctica
Military - note:
the Antarctic Treaty prohibits
any measures of a military nature, such as the establishment of military
bases and fortifications, the carrying out of military maneuvers, or the
testing of any type of weapon; it permits the use of military personnel or
equipment for scientific research or for any other peaceful purposes
Transnational Issues
Antarctica
Disputes - international:
Antarctic Treaty freezes claims
(see Antarctic Treaty Summary in Government type entry); Argentina,
Australia, Chile, France, NZ, Norway, and UK claim land and maritime
sectors (some overlapping) for a large portion of the continent; the US
and many other states do not recognize these territorial claims and have
made no claims themselves (the US and Russia reserve the right to do so);
no claims have been made in the sector between 90 degrees west and 150
degrees west
